Travels with Olga: Australia -- Immigration Museum

The Immigration Museum is a stately 19th century building that managed and regulated Melbourne's maritime trade of manufactured goods, alcohol, tobacco, stock, wool, and gold. It was called the Customs House, which served as a significant monetary source for the government before income tax was instituted in 1915. Customs duties raised four-fifths of all government revenue! It architecture expresses the confidence of a wealthy colony that was built on trade.

Customs officers also controlled immigration and processed thousands of immigrants for entry into Australia. Any person regarded as undesirable could be refused entry, and these restrictions usually centered on race on non-Europeans. Immigration restrictions in Victoria began during the gold rush, when a landing tax was imposed on all Chinese arrivals. By the 1880s, Chinese immigration was barred and soon afterward Restrictions all non-Europeans began. By the 1920s and 1930s, quotas and landing taxes also restricted immigration from many European countries. From the 1940s, restrictive policies were gradually dismantled. Not until the 1970s was all reference to race finally removed from the immigration laws.

The history of the Customs House, now called the Immigration Museum, and the activities of the people who worked here is the story of Victoria's trade, immigration and government. It tells of Melbourne's achievements as well as its prejudices.

Located on the banks of the Yarra River, the first Customs House was a tent erected during the 1830s. As trade increased, a new bluestone building (right) was completed in 1841 and reputedly "the ugliest and most inconvenient of all our public buildings". The gold rush helped to make Melbourne rich--and trade and immigrants significantly. The third building was built in 1876.

The account below is a history of immigration in Australia as provided by the Immigration Museum.

1502

Slavery -- the Foundation of Racial Discrimination

Atlantic slave trade begins, peaking in the 18th century. Britain outlaws slavery in 1807. The last recorded slave ship arrives in the USA in 1859.

"The right of holding slaves is clearly established in the Holy Scriptures both by precept and example." Rev. Richard Furman, Baptist Minister, USA 1838

1500-1850s

Naturalists and scientists develop theories about human "races" and racial hierarchies in order to justify the enslaving of millions of African people and the seizing of indigenous territories worldwide. By the 18th century these ideas about human difference have become a cornerstone of European thinking, shaping attitudes towards "non-white" cultures.

1840 - 1900

Encouraging Immigration -- "This land shall be inhabited"

Convict transportation had been a form of forced migration. With the end of transportation to Tasmania in 1853, and in Western Australia in 1868, immigrants had to be actively sought and encouraged.

Many immigration schemes were introduced in the 19th century mainly targeted at British immigrants. Some provided incentives such as assisted passages and guarantees of work and accommodation. Others provided financial rewards. Bounty schemes paid shipping companies for each immigrant who arrived.

by 1860 over half a million immigrants had arrived in less than a decade--nearly one in five as an assisted immigrant.

Immigration policies in the nineteenth century reflected the desire to populate what was seen as Australia's vast empty space. The empty space represented economic opportunity, yet also military vulnerability.

The port of Melbourne

Melbourne's population and trade expanded rapidly through the 1840s. The port was crowded with ships bringing manufactured goods for the town and surrounding farming districts. The same ships departed with wool and livestock. Customs officers were kept busy traveling between the Customs House and the ships berthed at the Yarra wharves or anchored in the bay.

The gold rush in the 1850s brought a dramatic increase in trade and a constant flow of immigrants to Victoria. The Customs Department was the government's own gold mine. Duties were levied on all imported luxuries, while a tax was levied on the export of gold. Customs revenue in 1850 had totalled 84,000 pounds. In 1854 the customs officers collected the same amount in a month.

Debating Immigration -- Opposing voices

Although prejudice towards minority communities such as the Chinese was very vocal and politically effective, it was not universally supported. Prominent individuals such as Caroline Chisholm spoke out against it. Strong ties developed between many disparate communities during the 19th century.

Within the Chinese community, people actively protested against prejudice. Prominent Chinese merchants and a Christian missionary joined together to publish The Chinese Question in Australia. Chinese migration agents, who arranged large-scale immigration to Australia, lobbied governments for change. They pointed out the important economic and social contributions made by members of the Chinese community.

Nevertheless, organizations such as trade unions continued to argue that Chinese workers were taking the jobs of "Australian" workers and should be excluded.

Caroline Chisholm was born in England in 1808 and made her first visit to Australia with her husband Archibald in 1838. In Sydney Chisholm was shocked by the conditions in which female immigrants lived. Thousands were unemployed, and many slept on the streets, destitute and vulnerable. Some were forced into prostitution. Although the Government had paid for their passages to Australia, no assistance was provided for them on arrival.

Chisholm persuaded the Governor to give her a building in which the women could live. The Female Immigrant's Home was a great success, and during the next few years she found jobs and homes for 11,000 immigrants.

Chisholm spent about 20 years of her life as a social reformer and philanthropist. She authored political pamphlets and submissions to British parliament, raised funds for her causes, and toured the UK giving lectures on emigration.

She devoted her life to improving immigrants' lives, including the dreadful conditions on immigrant ships. A network of "shelter sheds" in Victoria provided basic overnight accommodation for migrants traveling across Victoria to the goldfields.

Her Family Colonialisation Loan Society assisted groups of families to migrate to Australia, stay together and provide a support network for one another.

She died back in England in relative obscurity and poverty in 1877.

Immigration Policy -- Policies of Empire

In the 19th century immigration policy was controlled primarily by the British Parliament. Legislation such as the Passengers Act of 1855 attempted to establish uniform controls for migration throughout the British Empire and to ensure the safe passage of migrants.

In 1850 the British Parliament allowed the creation of three new, self-governing colonies: South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria. In 1855 Victoria passed Australia's first immigration act: the Act to Regulate the Residence of the Chinese Population in Victoria. This was the first of many acts to restrict immigrants from specific countries.

Great Britain was not entirely supportive of these restrictive policies. Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon, stated that "exceptional legislation, intended to exclude from any part of Her Majesty's dominions the subjects of a State at peace with Her Majesty, is highly objectionable in principle". However, no action was taken. The acts were repealed when Chinese arrivals abated, but restrictive policies were reintroduced at the end of the 19th century.

Imagining Australia -- Building a new Britain

The Australian colonies saw themselves as outposts of the British Empire. British immigrants were strongly favored and minority communities were often ostracized. Resentment towards these communities began to build on the goldfields, in the sugar cane fields and in the factories where people felt their jobs and incomes were threatened. At the same time the Aboriginal population was rapidly declining due to social dislocation, disease and massacres, strengthening the idea of Australia as a "white" nation.

This resentment was supported by racial stereotypes. Scientific theories were used to argue that some races were superior to others. European phrenologists measured and compared the shapes of human heads in different populations, concluding that European people were superior. Drawing on Darwin's theory of evolution, the eugenics movement argued that "superior" individuals and populations should be encouraged at the expense of others.

"Old England and the new"

During the 19th century most immigrants came from Great Britain; smaller numbers came from continental Europe. Some also arrived from Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific Islands. by 1900 less than three percent of the population was of non-European or Aboriginal background.

Immigration policy was governed by Great Britain, although the Australian colonies began to introduce their own immigration acts in the mid-19th century, following the end of convict transportation. These acts aimed to control the massive influx of people during the gold rushes.

Seeking refuge in a distant land

People sought refuge in Australia for many reasons in the 19th century. The Irish famine of the late 1840s, in which almost one million people died, forced a further million to leave their homeland. Many thousands came to Australia. Scottish Highlanders forced off their land in Highland "clearances" also emigrated to escape dire poverty. More than two million Jews fled pogroms (violent attacks) in Russia, seeking refuge in the United States, Britain, and Australia. No specific category existed for refugees wanting to come to Australia--they were simply processed along with other immigrants.

This racist cartoon expresses fears about the arrival of Russian Jews stereotyped as bookmakers in the late 19th century. Russian Jews were fleeing persecution by their own government. Archived at the State Library of Victoria

The Closed Door -- Us and them

The discovery of gold near Ballarat in 1851 attracted large numbers of people from Europe, North America, and China. The success of some Chinese miners and entrepreneurs created envy and fear, sharpened by racial prejudice. The number of Chinese immigrants was drastically limited by Victoria's 1855 Act to Regulate the Residence of the Chinese Population in Victoria, requiring the payment of a £10 levy by every Chinese immigrant. Exorbitant Chinese residence taxes were later applied.

Some other non-British immigrants were also unwelcome, including Pacific Islanders and Russian Jews.

1850s - 1900

Scientists continue to debate racial hierarchies, always with white men at the top. The theory of eugenics develops, emphasizing racial purity and controlled breeding. In Australia this theory underpins the removal of Aboriginal children from their families. Segregation, restrictive immigration policies, and massacres of Indigenous people contribute to the maintaining of a white racial and economic pecking order.

1871

Charles Darwin's Descent of Man is published which would fundamentally influence political and social theories about the origins, evolution, and hierarchies of human races. "Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in color, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, etc., yet if their whole organizaation be taken into consideration they are found to resemble each other in a multitude of points.

1901

The White Picket Fence

"Let us keep before us the noble ideal of a white Australia, a snow-white Australia if you will. Let us be pure and spotless." Rev. James Black Ronald, member of House of Representatives, 1901

In 1901 Australia was clear about what it wanted to be--and who it didn't want to include.

One of the first legislative acts of the newly formed nation restricted non-white immigration. The stage had already been set. Australian Aboriginal people were losing their land and their families. Chinese, Indian, and Afghan people were lampooned in the press.

Ideas about racial superiority have influenced our policies and our demographics. These legacies have been difficult to leave behind.

The White Australia policy officially ended in 1973. In many ways Australia's multicultural policies have become the envy of the world. But has Australia really escaped its racist past?

Immigration Restriction Act of 1901

The Immigration Restriction Act came into law on 23 December 1901. Under the Act, new migrants had to sit a 50-word dictation test. Even if they passed the test in English, they could be made to sit the test again in different languages until they failed. White British migrants were not made to sit the test.

The test was really a way of stopping non-white migrants from entering Australia. Only 52 people passed the test between 1901 and 1909 (from 1359 tests) and no one passed after 1909.

In 1901 two more Acts limited migration to Australia. The Pacific Islanders Labourers Act 1901 outlawed imported labor and the Post and Telegraph Act 1901 banned non-white workers from transporting Australian mail.

In the 1800s most white people in Australia shared views that today we would call racist. They believed that non-white people were not as clever or as moral as white people. The people who held these views particularly feared Asian immigration, but applied their ideas to all non-white people, including Indigenous Australians, who they considered a ‘dying race’.

Australia saw itself as a working man’s paradise that promoted equal rights and opportunities. But these ideas only applied to ‘desirable’ citizens. The nation wanted to attract male, white and skilled workers. Non-white people, and even sometimes working women, were seen as a threat.

Because of these views, many of the colonies limited migration from many countries and encouraged the immigration of male, white and skilled labourers from Britain. Non-white immigration grew with the gold rushes in the 1850s and 1860s, and with the arrival of indentured Pacific Island labourers (known as ‘Kanakas’). A rise in non-white migration made many white Australians fearful. Migrants often worked for less pay or sold goods cheaper than white-owned businesses, leading to economic tensions on top of existing racism.

1901 - 1945

Ideas about whiteness and the value of racial purity inform restrictive immigration policies in the USA, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. Thousands of British children are sent to Australia, Rhodesia, Canada,and the USA, whom Australia gladly accepts because of this desire for a "white" population. These ideas are also used to justify the continued removal of Aboriginal children from their families. In Germany, extreme manifestations of policies of racial purity lead to the Jewish Holocaust during World War II.

1946 - 1972

"Room for millions more"

Nearly three million immigrants arrived in Australia between 1945 and 1970. Australia's immigration program became the second largest in the world, relative to its population (the largest being Israel).

Almost every second immigrant came from Britain; immigrants were also accepted from throughout Europe in a drive to increase national security and post-war economic development. By the early 1970s Asian immigrants were accepted in increasing numbers.

The 1958 Migration Act finally removed references to race, opening the door to non-discriminatory policy.

The White Australia policy immediately changed Australia. By 1947 only 2.7 per cent of the population was born outside Australia, Ireland or the United Kingdom. Australia’s Asian population had shrunk from 1.25 per cent in 1901 to 0.21 per cent by the late 1940s.

The federal government still wanted mostly white British migration after the Second World War ended in 1945. The Ten Pound Pom program brought large numbers of British migrants to Australia from the 1940s to 1960s. But, after 1945, Australia’s immigration minister Arthur Calwell began to relax the White Australia policy. The government now saw the policy as a threat to population growth. White Europeans from the Baltic region were allowed to migrate and then, eventually, migrants from other backgrounds.

The government of Prime Minister Harold Holt relaxed the policy in 1966. It was completely removed after the Whitlam Government passed the Racial Discrimination Act in 1975.

Debating immigration -- Arguing for change

Australia's changing immigration policy was bitterly debated. Some were disappointed that Australia was moving from its British identity; others felt that the policy was deeply discriminatory since it still took race into account.

As cultural diversity increased, opposition to a racially-based policy grew. The aftermath of the Holocaust and the international development of ideas of social conscience and responsibility in the 1960s made prejudice and inequality increasingly unacceptable. University students and left-wing activists led the attack on the policy, supported by increasing numbers of community organizations.

Many church groups also opposed discriminatory immigration policies. In May 1960 the National Catholic Rural Movement declared that the White Australia policy was "unchristian".

"...the total exclusion of Asians from Australia should be abandoned and...we shold admit a sufficient number of the different races to dispel forever the myth of racial superiority inherent in the so-called White Australia policy." Melbourne Archbishop Daniel Mannix, 1959

Encouraging immigration -- Extending the invitation

Many immigration assistance schemes were established in the post-war period. These included the "Bring out a Briton" nomination scheme and the £10 assisted passage scheme, also for British migrants. In 1952, a Greek assisted passage scheme was also introduced. The 1950 Colombo Plan allowed students from developing countries to study in Australia, some of whom were later accepted as permanent residents.

The Department of Immigration organized a systematic campaign to promote Australian immigration in Britain and continental Europe. Posters. leaflets, newsreels, and window displays advertised the merits of Australia's employment prospects, climate, and housing.

Massive industrial projects such as the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme and theYallourn power station replaced rural schemes as the focus for employment-based immigration during the post-war period.

Children were not forgotten. From 1947 orphaned and economically-disadvantaged children were again sent from Britain to farm-schools run by the Fairbridge Society, Dr. Barnardo's Homes and the Christian Brothers. Although many were well-intentioned, such schools became notorious in later years for complaints about mistreatment of children.

Immigration policy -- "A policy for the future"

"We are but seven million people...a third world war is not impossible...we may have only those next 25 years in which to make the best possible use of our second chance to survive. Our first requirement is additional population..." Arthur Calwell, Minister for Immigration, 1945

Australia's post-war immigration policy was opportunistic. It took advantage of the massive numbers of dislocated people in Europe at the end of World War II to initiate a large-scale immigration program. The program was intended to bolster defenses and economy. It also helped British immigrants eager to escape post-war shortages. Coordinated by the first Commonwealth Department of Immigration, it was established in 1945 with Arthur Calwell as the first Minister.

At the same time Australia was gradually moving away from the White Australia policy. The Migration Act of 1958 abolished the dictation test. In 1964 "mixed race" migration was made easier and in 1966 skilled non-Europeans were permitted if considered suitable to integrate.

Until the mid-1960s Australia maintained a policy of assimilation, believing that different cultures would be absorbed into the mainstream culture. From the mid-1960s until the early 1970s assimilation was replaced by a policy of integration, whereby cultures were encouraged to combine to form a new culture. Special measures, such as full-time language courses and grants to immigrant organizations, supported integration.

Seeking refuge -- A time of great need

World War II caused social dislocation and distress on a massive scale. Millions of people were homeless and national infrastructures were in chaos. In Europe, the International Refugee Organisation struggled to provide temporary housing and permanently relocate people. Australia accepted 170,000 refugees between 1947 and 1953. A campaign was mounted to persuade Australians of the importance of welcoming refugees. The 1958 Migration Act confirmed Australia's international obligations towards refugees.

As arrivals from post-war Europe tapered off, refugees from communist Eastern Europe began to arrive; later refugees included people from Turkey and Chile.

The closed door -- Continuing rejection

In spite of official enthusiasm for immigration in the post-war period, not all applicants ere accepted. Disabled or ill applicants from any country were rejected. Even if only one family member was "not of sound body or mind" the whole family was denied entry.

Immigration officers sometimes rejected those who simply looked "different" to the Anglo-Celtic ideal--one immigration officer explained that it was for their sake as well as Australia's.

1946-80

Scientific thought shifts away from using "race" to define human variation. After World War II, international declaration are made relating to discrimation and human rights. While the doors to European migrants widen, Australian Government preferences for a dominant British-based population see migrant selection and assimilation policies continue well into the 1960s. Assimilation policies relating to Aboriginal people also persevere but the fight to recognize Indigenous rights in Australia gains momentum, partly influenced by international civil rights movements. Government policies embracing a culturally diverse population are evident in the 1970s through increased Indo-Chinese refugee intakes and multicultural programs.

1981-today

Multiculturalism is embraced and then challenged. Global rights of Indigenous people extend to land rights and national apologies. The Cold War ends but Western nations identify new adversaries in Muslim and Middle Eastern nations through wars and conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria and the so-called global "war on terror". Politicians, public figures, and the media participate in debates about migration, asylum seekers, and population. Anxiety about threats to traditional notions of Australian identity focuses on migrants from Asia, Africa, and Muslim nations. Australians continue to grapple with complex issues of living in a culturally diverse society.

During the 1990s and 2000s, the term "UnAustralian" was used by some politicians and broadcasters to deride anyone who questioned more traditional ideas about Australian national identity and history. This yellow t-shirt (2009) parodies them..

Harry J Wedge is a Wiradjuri artist born on Erambie mission in New South Wales. His work confronts issues relevant to urban Aboriginal people. This painting (1996) satirizes former One Nation Party leader Pauline Hanson's attitudes towards migrants from Asia, asylum seekers and Aboriginal people. It is entitled "Redheaded Bitch (Xenophobia)"

Immigration and national identity

For over two centuries immigration has raised questions about national identity.

What kind of society do we want?

Is Australia a southern outpost of British culture? Or is its identity bound to Asia and the Pacific?

Is there a "typical" Australian? Or does the very idea of "typical" deny the diversity of our society?

How does Aboriginal identity fit into the idea of Australia as an immigrant nation?

Can different cultures maintain their identities while participating in a "national" identity?

The selection of immigrants over time has always been influenced by the sort of nation that governments and special interest groups have wanted to create. Issues such as increasing the population, developing a workforce and responding to global humanitarian needs have been tempered by preferences for particular nationalities and cultures.

Australia's immigration policies

Australia's immigration policies have changed siginificantly since European settlement in 1788. The first immigrants came unwillingly from Britain as convicts, accompanied by soldiers and administrators. In the 1830s free settlers began to arrive in significant numbers. For Aboriginal people, it was the beginning of a period of massive dislocation and distress.

Immigration policy from the 1840s to today can be divided into four broad periods.

1840-1900 Convict transportation ceases but British policy continues to govern the Australian colonies. The colonies begin to introduce their own immigration restrictions to control the influx of settlers.

1901-1945 Australia's Immigration Restriction Act, commonly known as the "White Australia policy", restricts immigration from non-British countries.

1946-1972 Immigration policy no longer mentions race. Although British immigrants are still preferred, continental Europeans are also admitted in a push for population growth.

1973-today Multiculturalism results in a broadening of immigration policy. People from all countries may apply to immigrate. However, overall immigration levels are reduced.

The Long Room at the Customs House (above) in full operational mode for trade and the hall as it is today. The Long Room was the heart of Melbourne's trade for over 100 years.

A place of refuge

People have migrated to Australia for many reasons, including work opportunities and family reunion. Since the time of European settlement Australia has also provided refuge for people fleeing persecution. In the past 50 years almost 600,000 refugees have been resettled in Australia.

Asylum-seekers are refugees seeking new countries in which to settle. Australia provides protection for asylum-seekers under its Humanitarian Program. It is not illegal to seek asylum in Australia. It is a basic human right, accepted by all signatories, including Australia, to the 1951 UN Convention and 1967 UN Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.

Illegal immigrants are people who have not met any legal requirements for visiting or migrating to Australia. This includes thousands of people who overstay their visas, many from Britain and the United States. Overstayers outnumber asylum-seekers by ten to one.

Acknowledgement of Indigenous Peoples

The museum's welcome sign depicts Wiripil, the eagle (left) and Wangi, the crow (right)

Bunjil the Ancestral Wedge-tailed Eagle is the creator and Waa the Ancestral Crow is the protector for the Traditional Owners of Melbourne, the Boon Wurrung and Woi Wurrung peoples. The eagle and the crow are significant to First Peoples across Victoria.

The Story of Wangi the Crow

Wangi was one of the most beautiful birds in the world. He had all the colors of the rainbow on his feathers. One day, Wangi was showing off flying up high singing, "Look at me, I'm Wangi, I'm the most beautiful bird in the world." All of the animals watching called out, "No Wangi, you are flying too high!: Wangi wouldn't listen, and he flew higher and higher singing, "Look at me, look at Wangi, the most beautiful bird in the world." All the animals warned him "No Wangi, you're getting too high and close to the sun!" Wangi would not listen. He flew too close to the sun and his feathers got burnt. That's why Wangi has black feathers now and you don't see Wangi flying higher than the trees.

As told by Brendan Kennedy, Dindi Thangi Wuthungi (River Country Man)