Nimes is known as "the most Roman city outside of Italy". As you walk the city, you encounter old Roman
buildings, gates, and statues that create awe-inspiring touchstones with the Empire's reach, dominance, and
importance in France. Here is a little tour of the city that I visited in October 2021.
Nimes is located in southern France in the province of Languedoc-
Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées, just west of Provence. A TGV train
from Lyon traverses southwest through the beautiful Massive
Central hills and Cevennes Mountains to reach the old city.
For the Romans, Nimes was a major city in Gaul on the Via Domitia, a 170-mile Roman road that ran along the
Mediterranean coastline and into Lyon (north) and the Pyrenees (south).
Roads were built by the army with slave labor. Engraved stone military columns served as markers. A portion
of the Via Domitia is still visible with the ever-present grooves of chariot wheels on the cobblestones.
The exquisite Maison Carrée (pictured above) remains one of the best-preserved temples of Roman civilization
and has never ceased to be used for something beyond its original purpose as a temple dedicated to the imperial
cult built during the first few years of the 1st century C.E. Modifications of both the building and its
surrounding area have accommodated various needs for different times. For example, in the 11th century, a
chapel was added to the northern façade. From the 11th to the 16th century the Maison Carrée served as a
private house. It subsequently changed owners several times and suffered the most serious damage after having
been transformed to a hostel and stables.
From 1673 until the French revolution in 1789, Augustinian monks made the temple into a church. After the
revolution, the building served as a depot and a granary. In 1791, the Maison Carrée was sold as public
property. In the 19th century, the entire quarter of this section of the city underwent considerable change,
including restoration of the ancient temple and the removal of several adjacent buildings around the Maison
Carrée. After serving as the Archives for the first prefecture of the Gard Department, it was later transformed
into a museum in 1823 and listed as an historic monument in 1840.
Between 2006 and 2010, the façade of the Maison Carrée was completely restored. Today, visitors may enter
the building and watch a short film about the original family who built it and whose progeny were entrusted
with its keep.
The Maison Carrée was built between 2-5 C.E., when the Emperor Augustus had a number of public buildings
constructed in the colony of Nemausus (Nimes), to promote its development. Limestone rocks from the local
quarries of Lens and Barutel were used to construct the temple and several other Roman monuments of Nimes.
These materials are occasionally used today, especially for restoration.
The Maison Carrée is an example of monumental
Roman religious architecture. Built on a platform
dominating the public square, its outline and
proportions (25 meters long, 12 meters wide, 17 meters
high) are similar to the temple of Apollo in Rome. Its
façade contains six columns and eleven embedded
columns are located on its sides. The temple’s outline
includes a colonnade, which gives access to the cella.
This part of the temple housed a statue of the divinity
and was accessible only to the priests. Rites and public
processions were exclusively celebrated outside in
front of an altar.
The entrance to the temple consists of 15 steps. In ancient times, it was very important to climb an uneven
number of steps to enter a temple. Since the left foot was considered a sign of bad luck, you placed your
right foot both on the first and the last step of the stairs.
Fluted columns don the elaborate Corinthian capitals. The frieze was
decorated with foliage and birds, which symbolically acknowledged the
benefits Augustus brought to the conquered Gauls. Underneath the sculpted
coffered ceiling lies the door of the cella, which was made by the
“Compagnons du Devoir”, a traditional French craftsmen’s association, in
the early 19th century. The roof was restored in the late 20th century based
on models of antique tiles found during excavation work. The interior of the
Maison Carrée no longer contains any traces of its antique décor, but it is
likely that the building was painted in the manner of antique temples.
The Maison Carré was a part of the forum, a vast
square lined with porticoes and public buildings that
served for a multitude of activities from religious
and political life to trade and jurisdiction. The curia,
the gathering center of the local Senate, was located
on the northern end of the forum.
Not far from the Maison Carré on the main road was this statue of
Emperor Antoninus Pius. It looks Roman, but it was sculpted in
Carrara marble by a local, Auguste Bosc, in 1864. The city was
preparing for a regional exhibition and decided to remove the
insalubrious trough located on this spot, just across the street from
the Jardin de la Fontaine canal. Architect Henri Révoil transformed
this area into a small park surrounded by a wrought iron fence
(created by iron smith Martius Nicolas). The statue was installed in
the park in 1874.
Ramparts and Gates of Nimes
Ancient Nimes was a walled city and among the largest in Roman Gaul. The walls themselves were 9-10 meters
high and more than two meters thick. The walls were six kilometers long with nearly 80 towers and 10 gates. A model of the wall around the city (left) shows major buildings, main gates, and towers. In the garden of the
Musée de la Romanité (right) is a portion of the rampart.
One of main gates of the Roman
ramparts was the Augustine Gate,
so named because the Emperor
Augustus helped to pay for it. The
two main central arches were for
vehicles and the two smaller side
arches were for pedestrians.
Artist's rendering of the original Augustine Gate
The magnificent Arena, one of the best-preserved amphitheaters in the world, was built around 70 C.E. during
the reign of Augustus and shortly after the Coliseum in Rome. It is still in use today with gladiator re-
enactments, concerts, operas, bullfighting, and various other public events and exhibitions. A bronze matador
sculpture is just outside the Arena to recognize the sport.
The oval-shaped stadium has perfect symmetry measuring 436.4 feet
and 331.4 feet, while the interior arena measures 223 feet by 124.7 feet.
Its exterior façade comprises two levels with 60 arches. All of the
arcades were originally on the ground floor with accessible entrances
and exits that prevented bottlenecks among the crowds. During Roman
times, the arena could hold 24,000 spectators who were spread over 34
rows of terraces divided into four separate areas.
Each area was
accessed via a gallery and hundreds of stairwells and passages called
"vomitories". Several galleries were located beneath the
arena, and were accessed by trap doors and a hoist-lift system.
Visitors are able to visit the floor of the arena for a gladiator's perspective as part of their tour. The tour
costs 13 Euros and includes a visit to the Maison Carré, a 10-minute walk from the Arena, as well as the
Magne Tower in the northern part of the city.
The citizens of Nemausus (its Roman name) would sit in the Arena according to their social status to watch the
games played there ranging from animal hunts with lions, tigers, and elephants to the famous gladiator matches.
Executions would also take place at the Arena with those condemned to death thrown to the animals.
Beginning in the third century C.E., barbarian invasions and epidemics began the slow decline of the Roman
Empire and its traditions. In the 6th century, the Visigoths who had supplanted the Romans in Gaul,
transformed the Arena from a sports stadium to a castle fortress where the town’s inhabitants could take refuge
in the event of attack. A large moat also surrounded the Arena to help keep enemy forces out.
The Arena would go on to play an even more elaborate role in the 12th century when it became the seat of the
Viscount of Nimes' chateau with a small residential neighborhood surrounding it. In the 18th century, around
150 houses remained inside the Nimes Arena until 1786 when they were demolished to revert to its original
Roman grandeur.
Preservation of the Amphitheater
The amphitheater in Nimes has had ongoing preservation projects
since antiquity. In 2009, France launched a massive reconstruction
project on the building. Stonemasons, ironworkers, architects,
materials engineers, archeologists, scholars and researchers began
work on the 54-million-Euro project. On special occasions the
restauration work accommodates festivals and Roman-style games.
The real objective of the restauration is to combat water damage to
the city. The Romans had constructed the amphitheater with the
same intention, and they built canals, retention basins, and sewers to
serve as a giant funnel to direct and control water both underground
and above so that it wouldn’t stagnate.
Restoring the interior and exterior of a 2,000-year-old monument involves cleaning the surface of the stone,
repairing degraded or missing parts, and, where appropriate, replacing weathered blocks with custom cut
stones. The restoration includes the façades, the summit of the arena (the upper levels), the public gallery, the
promenade and the terraces on the upper tiers. It is a matter of "eliminating water" from this building while
consolidating the galleries and staircases with waterproofing, installing tie rods, creating gutters for water, etc.
The 25-year preservation project is due to be finished by 2034. Work areas are closed off to protect workers and
the 30,000 visitors who come to the Arena annually. The objective is to restore the building's original beauty
and preserve the harmony of its architectural lines. Fifteen of the 60 sections are already restored.
Before and after effects of restoration
Restoring the Nimes amphitheater requires very specific know-how. Seven specialist trades are working
together on this site. From stone cutting to lock-smithing, masonry, sculpture and lead work, the companies
chosen are all specialized in restoring old buildings. The project especially unites fellow craftspersons who are
passionate about old stonework. Driven by the desire to work for the preservation of French heritage and
concerned with maintaining the collective memory, these "artisans of history" are working to preserve the
ancient builders' work with respect for the old as well as contemporary techniques of construction.
In this restauration project, the teams analyze, color-code, and evaluate each stone for its solidity and stability.
Patching and doweling are done only when necessary. Even graffiti is preserved and studied. All of this work is
aimed at making the building as authentic as possible in an effort to conserve its historical integrity. It is
interesting to note that each stone also reveals secrets that tell the story of how the Romans built the
amphitheater. Finally, although the stones have moved very little over the past 1500 years, the last 60 years
have seen accelerated degradation, one major reason for the restauration project.
These ruins turned out to be the most moving for me in the whole city of Nimes. Even though this building has
no connection to the goddess, I went along with its name and mused on one of my favorite mythological
characters. Diana is the lone huntress who maintains her independence, rises above the scandals of Mount
Olympus, invests herself in Nature, and gets the job done. She is a no-nonsense type of woman who is honest,
matter-of-fact, and doesn't suffer fools lightly. (Ask Actaeon. He inadvertently caught sight of Diana bathing
and was transformed into a deer. Hounds later tracked him down and killed him.)
According to Rachel A. Diana, the goddess oversees the transitions in the lives of her worshippers. Given that
she is goddess of the moon (note the quarter-moon on her head), which orbits the earth, has its many phases in
its waxing and waning, it is important to note that Diana never completely disappears. In fact, the ancients
believed that these phases were metaphors for the way she gave life and took it away; from light to darkness and
from death to life. This transitory nature is expressed as "trivia", an epithet for Diana which comes from the
Latin word, trivium, and translates to "crossroads". So, Diana Trivia is the guardian of the crossroads and of the
transition from one place to another, be it literal or metaphorical.
The Temple of Diana consists of a main room, the vaulted cella
flanked by corridors. It is part of an Augusteum, a sanctuary
devoted to the cult of the emperor and his family, and doubtless
played a role in celebrations.
The eastern wall probably provided space for a library,
which suggests that the central room may also have been
a place for gatherings and public dialogue.
The left-over pieces of the temple elicit a kind of sadness of their long-ago greatness. They inspire a reflection
on how once-dominant cultures and empires gradually decline, fall onto themselves, and disappear. Today, as
we live during a time of changing values and structures that are rapidly being transformed into something else
for some other purpose, perhaps Diana, the guardian of crossroads and transitions offers consolation and
guidance as the values and mores of 20th century industrial society morph into new values and mores of 21st
century technological society.
So, what will the world look like 2,000 years from now? How will we be regarded by those who will live then?
What will be our legacy? Should we even care? Surely, we have made some great strides in our world with
science and technology, globalization and cultural diversity, the futility of war, rights for women and minorities,
and care for the unfortunate (at least through government and religious programs). However, we have far to go
in taking care of the environment, saving our planet's dying species, eliminating unfairness and injustice
discriminating against women and minorities, reducing the disparity between rich and poor, reducing violence
and terrorism, and appreciating beauty over mere function. How will we evolve our brains and souls to meet
these challenges? Maybe Diana can inspire us for managing these "crossroads."
The Temple of Diana--and Diana, the lover of Nature--reminds us that man-made structures can interact harmoniously with
the natural environment, even one that is cultivated. Such structures are remarkably pleasing to the eye, and
they emit a quality of tranquility that invites and spurs on contemplation and wonderment.
The builders paid attention to the beauty of artistic detail on carved stone, painted pillars, and a tunnel. The
central hall of the building also illustrates the magnificence of a people and culture that existed two millennia
ago and left an art and architecture that had to be derived from a depth of soul.
The Temple of Diana is tucked away on the periphery of the Jardin de la Fontaine in the northwestern part of
the old city. The temple stones attest to the eternity of time and our small and brief place in its scheme. The
stones endure—even as ruins. Nature endures, although in different forms. Time goes on without the ancient
people in their day—and by extension, us in ours. Myths continue whether we realize them or not. What we
take from history is usually selective and our interpretations influence our conceptions of truths. Nevertheless,
in uncovering truth, we must seek to understand how history shapes us and makes us who we are.
The beautiful Jardin de la Fontaine has been a popular destination in Nimes for nearly three centuries. The
original Spring of Nemo built here by the Romans supplied water for the city. In the 1700s as the growing city
needed a better source of safe drinking water, a network of canals was constructed originating from this spring.
The canals and gardens were constructed just after the gardens in Versailles had been built for Louis XIV, and it
was the first garden created for the general public.
The booming textile industry in Nimes also benefitted from the canal system by providing water for a new
product called denim, (from the French “de” Nimes, meaning “from Nimes”) which eventually became material
for blue jeans. Dyers' workshops relied on water but the flow from the spring was too irregular to be relied on at
all times. The canals collected and stored large amounts of water that could be available anytime as needed.
The canals were laid out in the eighteenth century in an area that includes the Tour Magne, a watch tower that
hovers on a hilltop above the garden, and the Temple of Diana, located on the west side of the garden. It is
interesting that a public works project like this would exact such beauty and detail. It begs the question that if
the canal were built today, would planners have taken such pains to design such a beautiful and accessible place
instead of a functional water works project of steel and concrete?
The sculptures of the Nymphaeum were commissioned specifically for the Jardin de la Fontaine. The central
figure representing the Nymph of Spring sits over the original spring.
The Nymphaeum pictured from the hill at the back of the garden (left) and series of arched bridges (right)
provide dramatic views of this public works project.
Nimes underwent some major beautification projects during the eighteenth century, however, the Jardin de la
Fontaine by Jacques-Philippe Mareschal, the king's military engineer, and Nimes' architect Pierre Dardailhon,
was a major achievement (1740-1749). Although the city of Nimes continued after the Romans, the spring was
abandoned during the Middle Ages until the Jardin was built to regulate the flow of the spring.
The park is a destination for many different publics like young people on a school track team (left).
The park is also a venue for concerts as indicated by the stage (right).
The statues and urns were purchased in 1747 when the Château de la Mosson near Montpelier was demolished.
Roman gods are placed around the Source including: Pluto (holding a cornucopia symbolizing the
underground world's wealth), Pan (fertility god), and Bacchus (god of wine).
The beautiful backdrop of the fountain provides symmetrical stairways that lead to Tower of Magne (right),
which is a steep climb to the summit. The 32-meter Gallo-Roman structure was built in the third century AD for
defensive purposes.
A statue of the poet, Antoine Bigot (1825-97), stands near the
bottom of the grand staircase on the eastern side of the garden.
He was the first French poet to write in the Languedoc or
Occitan language, which is still spoken in southern France,
Monaco, Italy's Occitan Valleys, Catalonia, and south.
The symbol of Nimes is an alligator and palm tree. It goes back
to Roman times when the Emperor Augustus conquered his arch
rival, Marc Antony and his lover, Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt.
Here it tops the gates of the Jardin de la Fontaine, but the
symbols are found everywhere in the city in various forms.
The canals snake through the northwestern part of the city and
provide a walkway beside the canal that is a popular space for
people of all ages. Downstream, the walkway is marked with a
dedication to those who lost their lives in the flood of October 3,
1988, with the logo of Nimes: the alligator and palm tree.
Other Interesting Sites
One of the first things you see after you leave the Nimes train
station and walk down the long promenade called Avenue
Feuchères and an area called the Esplanade is the imposing
figure of the Queen of Nimes. She stands tall and proud at
the top of a fountain flanked by classical lithe female and
muscular male bodies, again, reminiscent of the city's past as
an important Roman city. This fountain was designed by
James Pradier in 1851 as the new entry to Nimes via the train
station. The Queen's crown is a replica of the Maison Carré.
The figures surrounding the Queen symbolize the rivers and
springs of this area that have generously nourrished Nimes
over the centuries.
Both a residence and an administrative building, the
Prefecture was a new type of design by 19th century
architects. Léon Feuchère, for example, designed this
prestigious building, a particularly large one, with a
symmetrical pattern around a main courtyard. The front
steps are topped by a porticoed bell tower that marks the
main axis of the building with rich decorative features.
Le Petit Train takes visitors on a 45-minute city tour in English and French for only 13 Euros. It
follows the orange perimeter of the original city. (Similar tourist trains operate in other cities.)
War memorials can be found in most French cities. This one was particularly moving as it highlighted major
battles fought during World War I in a sunken circular mosaic presentation accompanied by names of fallen
Nimois carved onto the walls surrounding the mosaic. This memorial has to be one of the most elaborate in
southern France. References to World War II were also added to the memorial.
Near the war memorial is a plaque that memorializes August 29,
1944, the arrival of the liberating First Division of the Free French
Army at the end of World War II. These troops fought on the
battlefields of Europe and North Africa against the Nazi armies
leaving 600,000 dead Frenchmen.
The modern Musée de la Romanité sits opposite the
Arena on the main ring road of the old city of Nimes.
According to the museum's website, “the two facing
buildings complete each other harmoniously through
their forms, lines and masses: the oval and the
rectangle, the vertical and the horizontal, the density of
stone and the lightness of glass. This dialogue continues
inside the museum as both the façade and the glassed
inner structure use transparency and a play of
perspectives to show the rich heritage of Nimes.”
A beautiful Belle Epoque building on
Courbet Blvd, the eastern side of the ring
road around the central city of Nimes.
This impressive building (left) is a school. It stands on Victor Hugo Blvd, the western side of the ring road
around the old city. It is located near the Arena and across the street from the brasserie (right).
The sculptor and architect, Jean Mauric, designed this
Protestant church. He drew inspiration from the buildings of
the Catholic Reform in Italy, which were built by religious
orders during the Middle Ages outside the walls of the city. The
style is distinguished with a façade that has clearly differentiated
levels such as the narrowness in the upper part, and a single,
well-lit nave flanked by side chapels. The building has been used
by the Reformed Church since 1792. The Bible on the façade
(close-up) was added in 1843, clearly identifying with
Protestantism’s emphasis on The Word of God.
St. Perpetua & Felicity
Tympanum (below the triangular entranceway)
This church was built in the 19th century to help accommodate the rising population of the city. It was on land
that was once an island occupied by ancient people. It was inspired by northern French Gothic architecture. The
large entry is framed by two spires. The tympanum depicts Christ surrounded by the symbols of the four
Evangelists. A statue of St. Baudile, the first apostle of the church in Nîmes in the third century, stands beneath
the canopy (above the main entrance).
French street life is never dull. There is always something going
on, lots of people around, and a lot of things to look at. As I sat
for an afternoon coffee at the Brasserie, a sidewalk café across
from the Arena, a CGT demonstration suddenly appeared on
the main street. The General Confederation of Labour
(Confédération Générale du Travail, CGT) is a national trade
union founded in 1895 in the city of Limoges (where they make
the famous china). It was the first of five major French trade
unions. According to historian M. Dreyfus, the direction of the
CGT has been slowly evolving since the 1990s when it cut all
organic links with the French Communist Party (PCF), in favor
of a more moderate stance. Since the 1995 general strikes, the
CGT has been concentrating its attention on trade-unionism in
the private sector.
Some street theatre in the Centre Ville one evening. It was
not at all clear what these characters were, but they were fun
to watch. That's what the street is all about: spontaneity, fun,
openness, and performance by anyone for anyone.
This modern fountain is tucked into a walkway between a row of restaurants and apartment buildings just off
the main road. It celebrates water, an important theme in the history of Nimes and features a couple male-
female duos. This area at night is especially beautiful with the lights of the outdoor restaurants and the sound of
water flowing from the fountains. I find much of French contemporary art features unusually quirky figures that
have a certain unexpected appeal.
Allées Jean Jaurès is the tree-lined boulevard that is perpendicular to
the Jardin de la Fontaine. It is one of the longest promenades in France.
Its form and structure are a stark contrast to the elaborate 18th century
Jardin de la Fontaine, however, it has a beauty of its own. The shallow
pools allow birds to stand in them without getting wet. The babbling
fountains create a tranquil ambience.
A little French history about Jean Jaurès for whom this avenue is named.
Jaurès was an extraordinary man who championed "freedom of thought,
resistance to outside power, love for nature and for common people,
opposition to violence", according to Reuss & Reuss in their book, The
Unknown South of France (1991). Jaurés (1859-1914) started out as a
teacher at the lycée (high school) in Albi and then became a professor of
philosophy at the University of Toulouse where he eventually turned to
politics. He won election to the National Assembly in 1885 by defeating
the conservative Catholics and anti-clerics, who were dominant in southern
France at the time.
In 1892, after 3,000 coal miners in Carmaux went on strike, Jaurès became their advocate, which brought him to
national prominence. He was an excellent orator and in 1894 together with Emile Zola, he advocated the release
of Captain Alfred Dreyfus who had been falsely accused of treason by an anti-Semitic army clique. He
continued to fight against militarism and anti-Semitism and even influenced anti-war sentiment before World
War I. He founded the French socialist party, which in 1981 elected François Mitterand as president of the
Republic. Jaurès was assassinated in 1914 in a Paris café by a right-wing fanatic for his anti-war beliefs.
The Clock Tower in Nimes is called the Tour de l'Horloge. It was built
in the 15th and 16th centuries and is located in the Centre Ville. The
square is comprised of several restaurants and boutiques, and it is one
of several squares in the old city.
My Airbnb apartment was located on the northern part of the old city. Giles, my host, met me on the street
outside his Airbnb called "Le Nid" (the Nest) in front of this beautiful building. (The Nid's beautiful building
highlighted these expressive sculptures that were encrusted on its exterior. Some fine artwork here!)
The Nid was a cozy attic apartment on the third floor, and Giles was very proud of it. Perhaps it was a new
investment venture for him. Like several French Airbnbs where I've stayed, the host does not live in the unit.
That means that rendez-vous and door-key arrangements are texted. Thankfully, an elevator took us up two
floors leaving only 16 steps to climb up a narrow, wooden staircase. Giles gave me a brief tour of the apartment,
a set of keys, the codes to open the front door, and a tip about the Jardin de la Fontaine, whose canal walkway
was just outside the building. He told me about the nearby stores and boulangeries as well as the Halles covered
market in the old city (7 a.m. to 1:30 p.m.). The Nid was a simple but cozy apartment with a bed, TV,
kitchenette, bathroom, a nice hot shower, and towels all in about 200 square feet.
Nimes provides lots of food options with various prices and venues. I also discovered that there was some
Italian influence in this area, but not as much as Nice. One night I bought the Sicilian dish called orangini,
which I took home with me to eat.
One of my restaurant delights was Joe's Bar, which was right on the main street near the Maison Carré and a
10-minute walk from my Airbnb apartment. Joe's served food fairly early, which made it especially attractive
because I don't like to be out in the dark alone. In mid-October, night falls around 7:30-8 p.m. While I waited
for the 6:30 "dinner hour" with my huge chicken Cæsar salad and a rum&Coke.
Joe's is a sports bar and apparently a popular place among the young and for families on a night out. You order
your drinks and food at the bar and then pick them up when your hand-held buzzer goes off. While I waited for
my order, there happened to be a baseball game on the TV, which made me ecstatic. It's been four years since
I've seen a game! This one was between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox during the fall
playoffs. It was good to see something very familiar after being away from home for three years. Lately I've
been feeling a bit homesick since the prospects of going back will have to be put off for another year thanks to
the coronavirus pandemic.
Many of France's cities have Middle Eastern restaurants. I ate at one that served me a huge plate of lamb kebab,
French fries, and a salad. Fortunately, there was outdoor seating, which I prefer during these days of
coronavirus. It's just a little safer. For lunch on another day I had eggplant parmesan.
I didn't find any restaurants that served alligator (as they do in
New Orleans), but this big fellow was sitting outside a row of
restaurants in a pool of water. He is the city's mascot. Citizens
of Nimes are crazy about alligators. They even sell stuffed
green ones at tourist shops.
When I travel I try to go as economically as possible so that I can go on more trips
in the future. My trip to Nimes was no exception. I found an inexpensive Airbnb,
ate simple meals, wrapped up dinner rolls for breakfast, walked or took buses, and
found bargains for my train ride there and back. Occasionally, I'd splurge with a
hazelnut crepe like this one that I bought from a street vendor outside the Jardin
de la Fontaine. Mmmm-good! All in all, my trip to Nimes was, as the French say,
SUPER.!!!
Sources
Nimes Office of Tourism
The Unknown South of France: A History Buff's Guide. Henry and Margaret Reuss (1991). Boston: The Harvard Common Press.
The Phases of Diana: Goddess in Flux -- https://commons.mtholyoke.edu/arth310rdiana/the-moon/
Jean-François Paillard, pp. 55-57 and Déborah Bertier, pp. 59-63 in GeoHistoire, June-July 2020
https://www.arenes-nimes.com/en/discovering-site/amphitheatre
