"Roman Holiday" in Nimes -- The Street

 

One of the first things you see after you leave the Nimes train station and walk down the long promenade is the imposing figure of the Queen of Nimes. She stands tall and proud at the top of a fountain flanked by classical lithe female and muscular male bodies reminiscent of the city's past as an important Roman city.  

This fountain was designed by James Pradier in 1851 as the new entry to Nimes via the train station. The Queen's crown is a replica of the Maison Carré, an old temple visitors will find in a 15-minute walk to the northern part of the city. The figures surrounding the Queen symbolize the rivers and springs of this area that have generously fed Nimes over the centuries.

 

 

 

 

 The Esplanade Charles DeGaulle surrounds the Queen with shrubs and trees as well as  small cabanas that serve food. It's a welcome and striking natural respite from concrete and stone that comprise much of the city.

A large metal bull stands in the Esplanade to recognize the bullfighting culture of Nimes, which takes place in the Arena. Further down the street from the Esplanade is the Arena where a famous bullfighter is honored with a statue. The Arena has played host to bullfights in the past. They continue each year now. (Inside the Arena is a small display of the bullfighting tradition in Nimes. Near the Arena is an entire bullfighting museum.)

War memorials can be found in most French cities. This one was particularly moving as it highlighted major battles fought during World War I in a sunken circular mosaic presentation accompanied by names of fallen Nimois carved onto the walls surrounding the mosaic. This memorial has to be one of the most elaborate in southern France. References to World War II were also added to the memorial.

                         

 

 

A short walk to the left of the Esplanade is a plaque that memorializes the arrival of the liberating First Division of the Free French Army at the end of World War II on August 29, 1944. Soldiers fought on the battlefields of Europe and North Africa against the Nazi Armies leaving 600,000 dead.

Both a residence and an administrative building, the prefecture was a new type of building for 19th century architects. Léon Feuchère made this prestigious building a particularly large one, laid out symmetrically around a vast main courtyard, with front steps topped by a porticoed bell tower that marks the main axis and rich decorative features.

The modern Musée de la Romanité is a response to the ancient Arena, which sits opposite it on the main road near the old city of Nimes. According to the museum's website, "the two facing buildings complete each other harmoniously through their forms, lines and masses: the oval and the rectangle, the vertical and the horizontal, the density of stone and the lightness of glass. This dialogue continues inside the museum as both the façade and the glassed inner structure use transparency and a play of perspectives to show the rich heritage of Nîmes."

 

"Designing light architecture—made possible by present technology—seemed obvious to me, as did expressing the differences between the two architectures through dialogue based on their complementarity. On one side a round volume enclosed by the verticals of the Roman stone arches and firmly anchored in the ground and on the other a large square volume, set in levitation and draped entirely in a folded glass toga." 

Elizabeth de Portzamparc, Architect

Le Petit Train takes visitors on a 45-minute city tour in English and French for only 13 Euros. (Similar tourist trains operate in several cities.) It follows the orange outline of the original city.

 

This building is a school. It stands on Victor Hugo Blvd, the western side of the ring road, which is located across from the Arena.

 

 A beautiful building on Courbet Blvd, the eastern side of the ring road around the central city of Nimes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

French streets are never dull. There is always something going on, lots of people, and a lot of things to look at. As I sat for an afternoon coffee at the Brasserie, a sidewalk café across from the Arena, a CGT demonstration suddenly appeared on the main street. The General Confederation of Labour (Confédération Générale du Travail, CGT) is a national trade union founded in 1895 in the city of Limoges (where they make the china). It is the first of five major French trade unions. According to historian M. Dreyfus, the direction of the CGT has been slowly evolving since the 1990s when it cut all organic links with the French Communist Party (PCF), in favor of a more moderate stance. Since the 1995 general strikes, the CGT has been concentrating its attention on  trade-unionism in the private sector.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This modern fountain is tucked into a walkway between a row of restaurants and apartment buildings just off the main road.  It celebrates water, an important theme in the history of Nimes and features a couple male-female duos. The magic squares and pentagonal and octogonal figures along the concrete sides of the fountain's perimeter suggest the artist's desire to tap into a mystical theme. This area at night is especially beautiful with the lights of the outdoor restaurants and the sound of water flowing from the fountains.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

       

 

Avenue Jean Jaurès in Nimes is the tree-lined boulevard that is perpendicular to the Jardin de la Fontaine. It is one of the longest promenades in France. Its modern structure is a stark contrast to the elaborate 18th century Jardin de la Fontaine, however, it has a beauty of its own. The shallow pools allow birds to stand in them without getting wet, and the babbling fountains create a tranquil ambience.

 

 

            

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 Benches in the park are also unique.

 

 

 

 

 

A little French history about Jean Jaurès for whom this avenue is named. Jaurès was an extraordinary man who championed "freedom of thought, resistance to outside power, love for nature and for common people, opposition to violence", according to Reuss & Reuss in their book, The Unknown South of France (1991).

Jaurés (1859-1914) started out as a teacher at the lycée in Albi and then became a professor of philosophy at the University of Toulouse where he eventually turned to politics. He won election to the National Assembly in 1885 by defeating the dominant conservative Catholics and anti-clerics, who were dominant in southern France at the time. 

In 1892, after 3,000 coal miners in Carmaux went on strike, Jaurès became their advocate, which brought him to national prominence. He was an excellent orator and in 1894 with Emile Zola, became an advocate for the release of Captain Alfred Dreyfus who had been falsely accused of treason trumped up by an anti-Semitic army clique.

He fought against militarism and anti-Semitism and influenced anti-war sentiment before World War I. He founded the French socialist party, which in 1981 finally elected François Mitterand as president of the Republic. He was assassinated in 1914 in a Paris café by a right-wing fanatic because of for his anti-war beliefs. 

    

 

The Clock Tower in Nimes is called the Tour de l'Horloge. It was built in the 15th and 16th centuries and is located in the Centre Ville. The square is comprised of several restaurants and boutiques, and it is one of  several squares in the old city.

 

Some street theatre appeared in the Centre Ville one evening. It was not at all clear what these characters were, but they were fun to watch. That's what the street is all about:  spontaneity, fun, openness, and performance by anyone for anyone.

        

Sources

Nimes Office of Tourism

The Unknown South of France: A History Buff's Guide. Henry and Margaret Reuss (1991). Boston:  The Harvard Common Press.

 

 

"Roman Holiday" in Nimes -- The Arena

 

It doesn't take long to experience the Roman past in Nimes. Once you leave the train station and walk 10 minutes down the Avenue Feuchères, you encounter the magnificent Arena, one of the best preserved amphitheatres in the world. 

The oval-shaped stadium was built around 70 C.E. during the reign of Augustus and shortly after the Coliseum in Rome. It is still in use today with gladiator re-enactments, concerts, operas, bullfighting, and various other public events and exhibitions. 

Its perfect symmetry measures 436.4 feet long and 331.4 feet wide, with the interior arena measuring 223 feet by 124.7 feet. Its exterior façade comprises two levels with 60 arches. All of the arcades were originally on the ground floor with entrances or exits that prevented bottlenecks among the crowds. 

 

a modern-day event at the Arena

In Roman times, the arena could hold 24,000 spectators who were spread over 34 rows of terraces divided into four separate areas or maeniana. Each was accessed via a gallery and hundreds of stairwells and passages called "vomitories". Several galleries were located beneath the arena, and were accessed by trap doors and a hoist-lift system.

 

 

High school students had a class field trip at the Arena on this day. Some exhibited their athletic prowess to themselves and others.
 

 Visitors are able to visit the floor of the arena and get a gladiator's perspective as part of their tour. The tour costs 13 Euros and includes a visit to the Magne Tower (in the Jardin de la Fontaine) as well as the Maison Carré, a 10-minute walk from the Arena.

The citizens of Nemausus (its Roman name) would sit in the Arena according to their social status to watch the games played there ranging from animal hunts with lions, tigers, and elephants to the famous gladiator matches. Executions would also take place at the Arena with those condemned to death thrown to the animals.

Beginning in the third century C.E., barbarian invasions and epidemics began the slow decline of the Roman Empire and its traditions. In the 6th century, the Visigoths who had supplanted the Romans in Gaule, transformed the Arena from a sports stadium to a castle fortress where the town’s inhabitants could take refuge in the event of attack. A large moat also surrounded the Arena to help keep enemy forces out.

The Arena would go on to play an even more elaborate role in the 12th century when it became the seat of the Viscount of Nimes' chateau with a small residential neighborhood surrounding it. In the 18th century, around 150 houses remained inside the Nimes Arena until 1786 when they were demolished to revert to its original Roman grandeur.

Architecture of the Arena

Construction consisted of an elaborate structure resting on a succession of thick walls and vaults.

 

 

 

This cross-section view of the arena presents the system of galleries, stairwells, and passages called "vomitories", which gave people access to four separate areas of terraces.

 

 

At the top of the arena, pre-drilled stones were positions to overhang so that poles could be hung over the arena. A huge canvas was attached to these poles to provide the spectators protection against the sun and bad weather.

 

Preservation of the Arena

The amphitheater in Nimes has had ongoing preservation projects since antiquity. In 2009, France launched a massive reconstruction project on the building scheduled to last until 2034. Stonemasons, ironworkers, architects, materials engineers, archeologists, scholars and researchers began work on the 54-million-Euro project while tours continue to host 30,000 people each year. On special occasions the restauration work accommodates festivals and Roman-style games. The real objective of the restauration is to combat water damage to the city. The Romans had constructed the amphitheater with the same intention, and they built canals, retention basins, and sewers to serve as a giant funnel to direct and control water both underground and above so that it wouldn’t stagnate. 

 

Before and after effects of restoration

 

Restoring the interior and exterior of a 2,000-year-old monument involves cleaning the surface of the stone, repairing degraded or missing parts, and, where appropriate, replacing weathered blocks with custom cut stones. The restoration includes the façades, the summit of the arena (the upper levels), the public gallery, the promenade and the terraces on the upper tiers. It is a matter of "eliminating water" from this building while consolidating the galleries and staircases with waterproofing, installing tie rods, creating gutters for water, etc. The restoration of the terraces and the integration of scenic accessories, lighting, railings and handrails all contribute to an improved environment for welcoming the public to the monument. (Nimes Office of Tourism)

The 25-year preservation project is due to be finished by 2030. Work areas are closed off to protect workers and the 30,000 visitors who come to the Arena annually.  The objective is to restore the building's original beauty and preserve the harmony of its architectural lines. Fifteen of the 60 sections are already restored.

Restoring the Nimes amphitheatre requires very specific know-how. Seven specialist trades are working together on this site. From stone cutting to locksmithing, and including masonry, sculpture and lead work, the companies chosen are all specialized in restoring old buildings, and the project unites fellow craftsmen and women who are passionate about old stonework. Driven by the desire to work for the preservation of French heritage and concerned with maintaining the collective memory, these "artisans of history" are working to preserve the ancient builders' work with respect for the old techniques of construction as well as use of contemporary techniques. (Nimes Office of Tourism)

Successive surveys all show that since ancient times, several factors, including destruction of the intermediate stands and filling of the discharge drains have exposed the amphitheatre to the destructive effects of bad weather. In order to consolidate and repair each of the sections, the teams examine and diagnose each stone, one by one. They then seal points where water penetrates and replace any affected stones as necessary. (Nimes Office of Tourism)

 

In this restauration project, each stone block is analyzed, color-coded, and evaluated for its solidity and stability. Patching and doweling are done only when necessary. Even graffiti is preserved and studied. All of this work is aimed at making the building as authentic as possible in an effort to conserve its historical integrity. Each stone also reveals secrets that tell the story of how the Romans built the amphitheater. Although the stones have moved very little over the past 1500 years, the last 60 years have seen accelerated degradation, one major reason for the restauration project. (Nimes Office of Tourism)

 

 

Sources:

https://www.arenes-nimes.com/en/discovering-site/amphitheatre 

Jean-François Paillard, pp. 55-57 and Déborah Bertier, pp. 59-63 in GeoHistoire, June-July 2020

Nimes Office of Tourism

"Roman Holiday" in Nimes -- Gladiators

 

Life in the Arena was all about death and spectacle. It involved opponents exacting blood from their rivals. Although it is difficult today to fathom the attraction of such sport, these games excited the crowds who filled the stadium to watch these competitions. All day long, to the roars of the crowd and the sound of trumpets, the Arena staged one event after another starting with fights between wild animals followed by hunts.

 

At midday, the most barbaric spectacle involved prisoners being fed to wild beasts.

The highlight of the day were the gladiators' fights, which were cheered on by the crowds.

 There were many different types of gladiators who trained to work with specific types of weapons, and the Arena took pains to illustrate this fact with large posters in the Gladiators Gallery shown below. 

The Secutor (etymologically, "the one who pursues") was armed with a large shield, the scutum, a short sword, and a small greave. He appeared in the middle of the first century C.E. Developed from the Mirmillo, the Secutor was distinguished by his reinforced helmet, with rough edges and equipped with a finely finished crest in the shape of a half-moon. These characteristics were specifically adapted to resist the trident and the net of his only adversary, the Retiarius. This pair experienced great success from the second century C.E.

    

The Scissor was a gladiator equipped with a muff with a half-moon. It is also called an arbelas, a term that suits it better because the Greek word arbelos indicates the shoemaker's knife. This actually has the same shape as the half-moons attached to the muffs of certain gladiators.    

 

 

 

 

The Provocator was equipped with a curved shield, a greave showing the left leg up to the knee and a helmet without a crown. Armed with a short sword, his basi weapon consisted of his shield that he sometimes used to strike his opponent. He appeared at the end of the Republic. The Provocator was certainly the basic armatura through which the majority of the gladiators passed at first.

 

 

Developed in the first century B.C.E., the Hoplomachus was a variant of the Thracian. He was distinguished by his small hemispherical shield, his lance and his dagger with a straight blade. Like the Thracian, he had two large greaves. He fought the Mirmillo or, more rarely, the Thracian. In competition with the Retiarius, he disappeared in the second century A.D.

 

 

The Retiarius was a gladiator armed with a trident, a dagger, and a net. His left arm was protected by an arm guard supplemented by a shoulder pad, the galerus. Devoid of helmet, greave, and shield, and using arms that did not originate in the military field, the Retiarius was a very distinctive gladiator. He appeared before the end of the first century B.C.E. and fought first with the Mirmillo. It was necessary to wait nearly a century to find him an effective adversary with the Secutor.

 

The Mirmillo was armed with a large shield, the scutum, a short sword, a helmet equipped with a large crest and a small greave. This gladiator appeared at tge end of the Republic and constituted an evolution of the Gaul destined to fight the Thracian. Under the reign of Augustus he was also opposed to the Retiarius, then he evolved in this duel to become the Secutor. Nonetheless, the Mirmillo still existed until the end of gladiatorial combat, fighting against the Thracian and the Hoplomachus.

 

 

 

The Thracian was armed with a curved sword (sica), a small very bent rectangular shield, the parma, and two large greaves. He appeared at the beginning of the first century B.C.E. A fighter of Greek origin, the Thracian was opposed to the Mirmillo. This pair experienced a great deal of success in the first century C.E.

            

 

Gladiators were volunteers who sacrificed their freedom for glory or monetary gain. They underwent intensive training within the gladiators' school. Though they were treated as slaves, their bravery often won them the admiration of the people. The presence of a referee during solemn fights was systematic. It guaranteed that no cheating, nor alliances between the fighters would occur during contests. 

 

 

Source:  

Amphitheatre of Nimes -- https://www.arenes-nimes.com/en  

 

 

The Latin Roots of the French Language

The Romans fought a series of wars with the indigenous tribes of Gaul between 58 BCE and 50 BCE. These wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BCE with Julius Cæsar as the conqueror. The Roman takeover of Celtic lands, however, began in 125 B.C.E. At the time, there were several Celtic languages spoken including Ligure in the southeast, Aquitain in the southwest. Of course, Greek was spoken in Marseille, a great Mediterranean seaport. Linguists know little about these Celtic languages because they were only spoken and not written. Druid priests had forbidden writing what was considered a sacred language.

 

When the Romans defeated the Gaulic tribes, the language of Gaul gradually began to change to Latin, the language of the Romans. This transition began in the south in Narbonne around 58 BCE. Latin accounted for about 80 percent of the language with the remaining 20 percent in Celtic language, according to French linguist Henriette Walter (2014). Over the next 100 years the Gaullic aristocrats curried favor and privilege among their conquerors by speaking Latin. They also wore Roman togas and sent their sons to Roman schools in Bordeaux, Autun, and Toulouse.

  

Roman citizens also began to populate Gaul, which further spread the Latin language. Former army officers were compensated conquered lands, and Roman shopkeepers and artisans as well as teachers and various colonists came. Classical Latin authors like Cicero (106-43 BCE) and Seneca (4-65) were studied. Although the Celtic languages continued to be spoken in the rural areas, the people who lived in cities and along trade routes spoke Latin.

 

The Romans never adopted the languages of the people they conquered, so the Gauls had no choice but to learn Latin, especially if they were among the elite. Words like temple, stade (stadium), rosas (roses), frères (brothers) and temps (time) were incorporated into the vernacular. Of course, there were many mal-adapted uses of Latin words due to errors in pronunciation and/or spelling. For example, “augustus” became “aout” which became the French, août, for the month of August. Little by little with each generation, Latin became the common language, which came out of linguistic mixtures and their Latin and Celtic roots—and especially when Gauls and Romans married. Under the reign of Marcus-Aurelius (121-180), Christianity spread, and so did Latin. After the conversion of Constantine to Christianity in 313, Latin was spoken throughout the Roman empire not only in cities but in the countryside as well. By the fifth century, Celtic language was, in fact, regarded as crass.

 

Linguist Frédéric Duval (2007) contends that the strength of the Latin base in the language assimilated difficult local syntaxes just through the presence of the Romans in Gaul. Cities were given Roman names although they preserved a remembrance of the Celtic tribes who formerly ran them. For example, the city of Rennes was called Condate Riedonum out of respect for the Riedones tribe. The Romans payed homage to the Gallic god, Lug, by naming cities after him: Lugdunum (Lyon) was the capital of Gaul, and “duno” for fort in Gallic. Pronunciations were also assimilated from the Gaulois language. For example, ou in Latin was pronounced u as it is today; a became è (eg., from lavra in Latin to lèvra in French); hard c became ch (from calorem in Latin to chaleur in French). Learning the language orally also made silent sounds disappear. For example, the final m in Latin portam was transformed to French porte. Finally, certain Celtic and Latin words were fused like Celtic medio and Latin medius, which became au milieu in French; Celtic rix and Latin rex became roi in French.

 

Throughout the Roman empire, the Latin syntax became simplified over the centuries. Verbs too difficult to pronounce were replaced and then put in a different order in the sentence for better comprehension. Ending a sentence with a verb is the classic construction of Latin sentences. Metaphors and diminutives were also used. For example, the Celtic verb manducare, which means to “play with jaws” was replaced by edere, which eventually became the French manger (to eat). Some Latin expressions were retained, however, because they were easy to remember: eg., a priori, idem, maximum, ultimatum. So, common Latin speech combined with regional Celtic words and accents, says Henrietta Walker. For example, expressions in the Narbonne area after six centuries still distinguished themselves from other areas like the Aquitaine, Lyon, and Belgium. Eventually, modern languages derived from Latin would be born including French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish.

 

At the end of the fifth century and after the collapse of Rome, the barbarian invasions created more complex forms of the languages. In France, the Gallo-Romans intermingled with the Franks who had arrived with their own Germanic language, but decided to adopt Latin. Why? IT was a political decision. Clovis (466-511), king of the Franks (see photo), understood that in accepting the language of the natives of Gaul, he could gain the support of the grand Gallo-Roman families against future invasions from the East. The Gauls responded to Clovis by accepting his moves toward assimilation—but they adopted several Frank words many of which focused on war terms: bannière (banner), guerre (war), fleche (arrow), dard (dart), havresac (knapsack). German pronunciations also caught on. Examples of such sounds are the aspirated h as in hache (chopped), the hard g as in garder (to keep), and new sounds like eu in fleur (flower), which emerged during the Middle Ages. The Latin word, francus, whose origin signified an ethnic group, took on the geographical designation of the place (France) that was once called Gaul. The Gaullic lords gladly adopted and validated this name, which became the norm, according to linguist Bernard Cerquiglini (1995). 

 

 

Despite these assimilations of language in the northern and eastern part of Gaul, the influence of the Franks did not reach south and west of the Loire River (excluding Brittany in the far west). As a result, Charlemagne (742-814) made classical Latin the vernacular. He also asked the bishops of the Catholic Church to utilize Latin as well. From that time until the Renaissance of the 16th century, Latin words permeated religion, law, medicine, and science. 

 

Although the elites adopted Latin, the common people still resisted it in favor of retaining their own languages like d’Oc (southern France, Monaco, Italy's Occitan) and d’Oïl (northern half of France, southern Belgium, and the Channel Islands), which were much closer to frenchified Latin. The struggle over language was resolved by the 14th century when the common language of Gaul would be le françoys (le français, ergo French), which was a sort of “back to basics” Latin.

 

 

This article was translated from an article by Balthazar Gibiat entitled "Une Langue Qui n'en Perd pas Son Latin," which appeared in GeoHistoire (June-July 2020).

When Wine Flowed Down the Rhône

 

 

Before the Roman conquest, the Gauls were already accomplished winemakers who provided wine for Celtic banquets. Vineyards grew in the Rhône-Saône valley near Lyon and in the south in the Narbonne and Aude Valley. Trade routes fed into the Rhône River where barges transported the wine to ports on the Mediterranean. In 150 B.C.E. Rome took over these trade routes. Bibracte (Chalon-sur-Saône) (200 km northwest of Lyon) was the center for winemaking; archeologists found one million amphores (ceramic vases that held wine).

 

Before and especially after conquest, the Romans imported wine with accelerating speed. Vines from northern Italy were transplanted in these regions. New vineyards opened in Languedoc-Roussillon and in the Côte d’Azur with Vienne as a center for a red wine made with honey called Le Picatum or Mulsum. The Roman patrician class loved this wine. After the conquest, the Loire valley of the Seine began producing Bordelais à la Moselle. By this time Gaul had become the principal exporter of wine in the Mediterranean with Rome its best customer. For a city of one million people, Romans consumed 2.2 million hectoliters of wine per year—that’s over 58 million gallons of wine per year or 58 gallons per person.

 

Wine was transported along “the auto-route of antiquity”, the Rhône and Saône Rivers, and Lugdunum (Lyon) became the capital of Gaul with Arles, the outlet of the river and a Mediterranean port city of exchange. Amphores were made in Tourelles (northern France near Belgium) and barges 30-35 meters long were designed for easy navigation on narrow passageways and deep waters. The amphores of wine were then transferred to “navettes” at the port of Arelate (Arles) and finally taken to Ostie, Rome’s port city on the Tyrrhenian Sea. By the end of the first century, 40 percent of the amphores exported to Rome were from Gaule. Wine from Gaule was also exported to Egypt, southern India (Pondichéry), and various Red Sea ports.

 

The Rhône River provided water routes to other regions of Gaul, which made it much easier to transport commercial goods rather than over land by chariot. For example, it took only a few days to travel from Lyon to Bouches-du-Rhône, a distance of 360 kilometers, compared to one month by chariot.

 

In the third century a political, demographic, and economic crisis in Rome caused farmers to convert their vineyards to pastures. Wine production was severely decreased, and Gaul lost its status as the Mediterranean’s chief wine producer. Moreover, wooden barrels replaced the ceramic amphores, which had been made to last. The Rhône wine routes now became the highways of Christian preachers from Lyon to Vienne to Arles, especially since wine was needed by Christian churches for the celebration of the Eucharist. Previously, the Roman god, Bacchus, had replaced Sucellos, the Gaulois god of wine.

This article was translated from and article by Christèle Dedebant that appeared in GeoHistoire, June-July 2020, pp. 64-71